The Real History of Vimpires

The Evolution of Vampires

We currently live in a pop culture world that seems obsessed with vampires. From gothic vampire novels, to endless movies, television and art, the vampire archetype continues to grow in popularity and sophistication.

What is behind this seeming obsession with vampires, in our western culture? Why does this archeype endure? What does the vampire have, or do, that makes him/her so attractive and compelling? When did the transformation occur, from foul miscreant to suave tragic hero? Who is the vampire - really?

Vampire culture seems in stark contrast with the current technological age and advances in science. Starting out in the dim and obscure recesses of Eastern European folk tales and legends, the vampire has reached center stage in modern pop culture. From foul revenant of the grave, to super hero status within 100 years of evolution. Why?

Early Vampires

Vampires Fresh from the Grave!

The vampires of folk history were totally repugnant creatures. They were depicted as crude, foul
The vampires of folk history were totally repugnant creatures. They were depicted as crude, foul smelling, reanimated corpses, with a single parasitic-like motivation for blood. They are never actually observed in their vampire state, by the living, but their existence is confirmed by circumstantial evidence within the surrounding community. smelling, reanimated corpses, with a single parasitic-like motivation for blood. They are never actually observed in their vampire state, by the living, but their existence is confirmed by circumstantial evidence within the surrounding community.

The evidence for the existence of a vampire was thought to include such things as the sudden deaths of citizenry and livestock, under unclear or questionable circumstances. Also indicative of vampirism, was the sudden onslought of mysterious disease symptoms, especially those causing pale skin coloration and slow physical wasting (like tuberculosis - which was rampant and contagious during the 19th century in Europe and the U.S.).

Along comes a traveling vampire hunter, often a clergyman or other supposed learned person, with a specific knowlege of vampires and vampirism, and the cure.

The only cure of course, for the wretched, eternally damned vampire and for the welfare of the entire community, was to find the grave of the suspected vampire/corpse, dig it up, cut-off it's head and drive a wooden stake through it's heart.

Now the dug-up vampire/corpse would show certain characteristics that would confirm the vampire identity. These vampire/corpse characteristics included such things as long fingernails (supposed proof of continued life), reddened lips, cheeks and fingers, and finally, blood remaining in the heart, demonstrated when the stake was driven in.

There are actually many historical, documented cases in the U.S. and Europe where vampire hunts were conducted, along with the grisly cures. I will provide one such example from the State of Connecticut in 
the late 19th century.

The Bizarre but True Story of a  Vampire in 19th Century

Rhode island

Enter the real Vampire!

The story of the last official case of vampirism in the U.S. is that of 19 year old Mercy Brown of Exeter, Rhode Island, who died on January 17,1892.

The Browns were an upstanding farming family and pillars of their community. Mercy died of consumption (tuberculosis), which had previously killed her mother and sister and which now also seriously affected her brother, Edwin.

Mercy's father, George Brown was now faced with losing his entire family to this then misunderstood and incomprehensible disease. He was frantic and there were no answers available from science or medicine to help.

To save his son and only remaining relative, Edwin gave-in to the folklore suggestions of some of his neighbors, who felt the situation was indicative of vampirism in their community. It was asserted that the deaths and illnesses of his family were caused by vampirism. Son Edwin was slowly wasting away and it was necessary to immediately put an end to the vampirism in the Exeter community.

Mercy had been laid to rest in a temporary above ground crypt behind the Baptist Church in Chestnut Hill Cemetery. The ground was frozen in January and she could not be buried until Spring. On March 17,1892, George Brown and a group of neighbors went to the cemetery and inspected Mercy's body. Finding the body suspiciously well preserved, they cut out her heart and burned it on a rock - later mixing the ashes in a liquid concoction which they gave to Edwin to drink (as a cure). Mercy's desecrated remains were then reburied in a plot next to her sister and mother. Mercy's brother Edwin was not cured and died two months later.

Thus ends this tragic, but true tale of vampirism in the U.S. Unfortunately, due to the prevailing folklore and superstitions in the 19th century and the pervasive spread of consumption, these bizarre practices often occurred in Europe and the U.S.

The Victorian Novel Transforms the Vampire

Bram Stoker Creates Count Dracula, a new image is born

In 1897, with the publishing of his novel "Dracula," Bram Stoker succesfully transforms the image and the

 conventions of the Vampire from lowly sub-human parasite, to that of an intelligent, but somewhat evil superhero. Count Dracula resides in a castle, has superhuman powers and unlimited material wealth. He is a mysterious and genious intellect, who is (almost) immortal.

The new vampire is fantastically seductive and is almost omnipotent in his knowlege and power over humans.

However, he is a tragic hero who's eternal damnation and demise can be hastened by sunlight, and wooden stakes through the heart. He is also vulnerable to the beauty and innocence of attractive mortal women, who he must pursue, corrupt and discard.

Although impressively handsome and lonely, he can no longer experience the love and true companionship of a mortal woman and is surrounded by shallow creatures he has already corrupted and who once corrupted, can no longer be desired or loved.

The new literary vampire is incredibly popular, as the attractive, evil protagonist of the new Victorian Gothic novel. He becomes an enduring symbol of the anti hero.

Some writers have suggested that the Dracula novel represents the underlying sexual repression of Victorian society and the desire for male domination and the subjugation of women.

Clearly the dark lover representing dangerous and forbidden sex would have been a popular character in a society where open sexual expression was forbidden to women. Vampires embodied both forbidden sexuality and escape from death but their wretched form of existence was punishment for their transgression.

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The History of Sexuality

The History of Sexuality – About Foucault

Michel Foucault's "The History of Sexuality" pioneered queer theory. In it he builds an argument grounded in a historical analysis of the word "sexuality" against the common thesis that sexuality always has been repressed in Western society. Quite the contrary: since the 17th century, there has been a fixation with sexuality creating a discourse around sexuality. It is this discourse that has created sexual minorities.

This page only covers the views he presents in "The History of Sexuality".

In "The History of Sexuality", Foucault attempts to disprove the thesis that Western society has seen a repression of sexuality since the 17th century and that sexuality has been unmentionable, something impossible to speak about. In the 70s, when the book was written, the sexual revolution was a fact. The ideas of the psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich, saying that to conserve your mental health you needed to liberate your sexual energy, were popular. The past was seen as a dark age where sexuality had been something forbidden.

Foucault, on the other hand, states that Western culture has long been fixated on sexuality. We call it a repression. Rather, the social convention, not to mention sexuality, has created a discourse around it, thereby making sexuality ubiquitous. This would not have been the case, had it been thought of as something quite natural. The concept "sexuality" itself is a result of this discourse. And the interdictions also have constructive power: they have created sexual identities and a multiplicity of sexualities that would not have existed otherwise.

Confession is the basis of sexuality

Historically, there have been two ways of viewing sexuality, according to Foucault. In China, Japan, India and the Roman Empire have seen it as an "Ars erotica", "erotic art", where sex is seen as an art and a special experience and not something dirty and shameful. It is something to be kept secret, but only because of the view that it would lose its power and its pleasure if spoken about.

In Western society, on the other hand, something completely different has been created, what Foucault calls "scientia sexualis", the science of sexuality. It is originally (17th century) based on a phenomenon diametrically opposed to Ars erotica: the confession. It is not just a question of the Christian confession, but more generally the urge to talk about it. A fixation with finding out the "truth" about sexuality arises, a truth that is to be confessed. It is as if sexuality did not exist unless it is confessed. Foucault writes:

"We have since become an extraordinarily confessing society. Confession has spread its effects far and wide: in the judicial system, in medicine, in pedagogy, in familial relations, in amorous relationships, in everyday life and in the most solemn rituals; crimes are confessed, sins are confessed, thoughts and desires are confessed, one's past and one's dreams are confessed, one's childhood is confessed; one's diseases and problems are confessed;..."

This forms a strong criticism of psychoanalysis, representing the modern, scientific form of confession. Foucault sees psychoanalysis as a legitimization of sexual confession. In it, everything is explained in terms of repressed sexuality and the psychologist becomes the sole interpreter of it. Sexuality is no longer just something people hide, but it is also hidden from themselves, which gives the theological, minute confession a new life.

"Coming out" as a concept did not exist when Foucault wrote "The History of Sexuality", but this process of confessing homosexuality can surely be interpreted as an expression of this urge to confess. There seems to be a compulsion to reveal one's sexuality to confirm its existence in our society. In Ars erotica, a very different view is held, and people are content to let it remain a secret in the positive sense of the word.

The reason sexuality should be confessed is to be found in the Christian view of it. It was not, as it is today, seen as a strong, obvious force, but as something treacherous, something only to be found by careful introspection.

Therefore every detail had to be laid forth in confession; every trace of pleasure experienced had to be examined to find the traces of sin.

In this attention to details the reason sexuality is given such importance in our society is to be found. Making sexuality something sinful did not make it disappear. Quite the contrary: it was reinforced and became something to be noticed everywhere.

Power relations

There was also an element of social control in this. A power relation was created between the preacher and the confessant, between the psychoanalyst and his patient. Power relations are to Foucault central to any analysis of society, and this is especially true for sexuality. Power relations are formed in all relations where differences exist.

What Foucault means by power is not necessarily what is ordinarily meant by the word. It is something ubiquitous and cannot be thought of as dual, as creating a division between those dominating and those being dominated. Power in Foucault's meaning of the word is not an exclusively negative force. He claims that we have had a juridical view of power in our society; we tend to see it as something negative, oppressing, defining what is not to be done. Instead, power is the basis of Foucault's analysis of society. Common power relations related to sexuality are, in addition to the ones mentioned between the one who confesses and the one that receives the confession, those between teacher and pupil, between parent and child, and between doctor and patient.

Sexuality in the 19th century

Thomas Kuhn is a philosopher of the history of science, who claims we should understand how what is now seen as prejudice could be accepted as science.

With enlightenment, the view of sexuality as something sinful to be confessed mutated. It was adapted to modern demands of rationality by turning itself into a science. Foucault makes a strong distinction between what we would still today call science and a prejudicial doctrine on human procreation.

"Comparing these discourses on human sexuality to those from the same epoch on animal and vegetal reproduction, the difference is surprising. Their weak tenability - I won't even say in scientificity, but in elementary logic, places them apart in the history of knowledge."

The doctrines on sexuality postulated several "unnatural" sexual behaviors. In the 16th century, the focus was on regulating the sexuality of the married couple, ignoring other forms of sexual relations, but now other groups were identified: the sexuality of children, criminals, mentally ill and gays.

"The perverse" became a group, instead of an attribute. Sexuality became seen as the core of some peoples' identity. Homosexual relations had been seen as a sin that could be committed from time to time, but now a group of "homosexuals" emerged. Foucault writes: "The sodomite was a recidivist, but the homosexual is now a species."

"The homosexual of the 19th century became a person: a"past, a history and an adolescence, a personality, a life style; also a morphology, with an indiscreet anatomy and possibly a mystical physiology. Nothing of his full personality escapes his sexuality."

Seeing gays as a group is now taken for granted, but before the 18th century the idea would never had occurred to ask the question whether homosexuality is a function of heredity or of upbringing. It was simply not seen as being a fundamental part of the person, but instead as an action, something s/he did.

But homosexuality was not the only object of study for the medical "science". Foucault identifies four reoccurring themes:

	The body of women became sexualized because of its role as a child bearer. The concept "hysteria" was invented and seen as a result of sexual problems.
	The pedagogization of the sexuality of children. Children should at all costs be protected from the dangers inherent in masturbation and other sexuality.
	The socialization of reproduction. The importance of sexuality for reproduction is recognized and put into context in the study of population growth.
	The sexuality of adults becomes an object of study and all forms of "perverse" aberrations are seen as dangers.

Foucault emphasizes that the aim of these new moral codes was not to abolish all forms of sexuality, but instead to preserve health and procreation. Many forms of sexuality were seen as harmful and they wanted to protect health and the purity of the race. A mixture of ideas on population growth, venereal diseases and heredity ("degeneration" was to be avoided) created the idea that many forms of sexual conduct where dangerous.

Constructivism

Now that sexual actions were being identified and their naturalness and healthiness was analyzed, the concept of "sexuality" was created. Foucault comments on the four phenomena mentioned above:

"What are these strategies about? A struggle against sexuality? Or an attempt to control it? ... Actually, it is rather the production of sexuality. It should not be conceived of as a distinction founded in nature that power attempts to subdue, or as a dark domain that knowledge attempts to gradually uncover. It is the name that can be given to a historical measure...

This view makes Foucault one of the first constructivists" in this area, claiming that sexuality and sexual conduct is not a natural category, having a foundation in reality. Instead it is a question of social constructions, categories only having an existence in a society, and that probably are not applicable to other societies than our own.

This is why we should not speak of "homosexuality" in, for example, antique Greece. What we now call homosexuality cannot exist outside our specific cultural context. The same goes for all sexuality. Sexual intercourse is necessary for procreation, but that does not mean that sexuality, comprising and theorizing about all erotic behavior, is a natural or necessary category. Sexuality is more than sexual behavior. The largest part of its meaning lies in its cultural connotations.

It is this view that has given "The History of Sexuality" its significance. For the first time, sexuality is analyzed as a social construction, a perspective making it possible to study the origins and the development of our view of sexuality in a totally new way.

Source:ipce

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The History Of Tatoos

A  brief history of tattoos  the word tattoo is said to has two major derivations- from the polynesian word ‘ta’ which means striking something and the tahitian word ‘tatau’ which means ‘to mark something’. the history of tattoo began over 5000 years ago and is as diverse as the people who wear them. tattoos are created by inserting colored materials beneath the skins surface. the first tattoos probably were created by accident. someone had a small wound, and rubbed it with a hand that was dirty with soot and ashes from the fire. once the wound had healed, they saw that a mark stayed permanently. despite the social sciences' growing fascination with tattooing, and the immense popularity of tattoos themselves, the practice has not left much of a historical record. --- bronze age in 1991, a five thousand year old tattooed man ‘ötzi the ice man’ made the headlines of newspapers all over the world when his frozen body was discovered on a mountain between austria and italy. this is the best preserved corpse of that period ever found. the skin bears 57 tattoos: a cross on the inside of the left knee, six straight lines 15 centimeters long above the kidneys and numerous parallel lines on the ankles. the position of the tattoo marks suggests that they were probably applied for therapeutic reasons (treatment of arthritis). --- pazyryk culture in 1948, 120 miles north of the border between russia and china, russian archeologist sergei rudenko began excavating a group of tombs, or kurgans, in the high altai mountains of western and southern siberia. mummies were found that date from around 2400 years ago. the tattoos on their bodies represent a variety of animals. the griffins and monsters are thought to have a magical significance but some elements are believed to be purely decorative. altogether the tattoos are believed to reflect the status of the individual. --- egypt written records, physical remains, and works of art relevant to egyptian tattoo have virtually been ignored by earlier egyptologists influenced by prevailing social attitudes toward the medium. today however, we know that there have been bodies recovered dating to as early XI dynasty exhibiting the art form of tattoo. in 1891, archaeologists discovered the mummified remains of amunet, a priestess of the goddess hathor, at thebes who lived some time between 2160 BC and 1994 BC. this female mummy displayed several lines and dots tattooed about her body - grouping dots and/or dashes were aligned into abstract geometric patterns. this art form was restricted to women only, and usually these women were associated with ritualistic practice. the egyptians spread the practice of tattooing throughout the world. the pyramid-building third and fourth dynasties of egypt developed international nations with crete, greece, persia, and arabia. by 2,000 BC the art of tattooing had stretched out all the way to southeast asia . the ainu (western asian nomads) then brought it with them as they moved to japan. --- japan the earliest evidence of tattooing in japan is found in the form of clay figurines which have faces painted or engraved to represent tattoo marks. the oldest figurines of this kind have been recovered from tombs dated 3,000 BC or older, and many other such figurines have been found in tombs dating from the second and third millennia BC. these figurines served as stand-ins for living individuals who symbolically accompanied the dead on their journey into the unknown, and it is believed that the tattoo marks had religious or magical significance. the first written record of japanese tattooing is found in a chinese dynastic history compiled in 297 AD. the japanese were interested in the art mostly for its decorative attributes, as opposed to magical ones. the horis - the japanese tattoo artists - were the undisputed masters. their use of colors, perspective, and imaginative designs gave the practice a whole new angle. the classic japanese tattoo, is a full body suit. --- china from southern china the practice spread along the silk route. --- polynesia in pacific cultures tattooing has a huge historic significance. polynesian tattooing is considered the most intricate and skillful tattooing of the ancient world. polynesian peoples, believe that a person's mana, their spiritual power or life force, is displayed through their tattoo. the vast majority of what we know today about these ancient arts has been passed down through legends, songs, and ritual ceremonies. elaborate geometrical designs which were often added to, renewed, and embellished throughout the life of the individual until they covered the entire body. in samoa, the tradition of applying tattoo, or ‘tatau’, by hand, has long been defined by rank and title, with chiefs and their assistants, descending from notable families in the proper birth order. the tattooing ceremonies for young chiefs, typically conducted at the onset of puberty, were elaborate affairs and were a key part of their ascendance to a leadership role. the permanent marks left by the tattoo artists would forever celebrate their endurance and dedication to cultural traditions. the first europeans who set foot on samoan soil were members of a 1787 french expedition. they got a closer look at the natives and reported that ‘the men have their thighs painted or tattooed in such a way that one would think them clothed, although they are almost naked’. the mythological origins of samoan tattooing and the extraordinary cross-cultural history of tatau has been transported to the migrant communities of new zealand, and later disseminated into various international subcultures from auckland to the netherlands. the hawaiian people had their traditional tattoo art, known as ‘kakau’. it served them not only for ornamentation and distinction, but to guard their health and spiritual well-being. intricate patterns, mimicking woven reeds or other natural forms, graced men's arms, legs, torso and face. women were generally tattooed on the hand, fingers, wrists and sometimes on their tongue. the arrival of western missionaries forced this unique art form into decline as tattooing has been discouraged or forbidden by most christian churches throughout history. --- new zealand the maori of new zealand had created one of the most impressive cultures of all polynesia. their tattoo, called ‘moko’, reflected their refined artistry - using their woodcarving skills to carve skin. the full-face moko was a mark of distinction, which communicated their status, lines of descent and tribal affiliations. it recalled their wearer's exploits in war and other great events of their life. --- indonesia borneo is one of the few places in the world where traditional tribal tattooing is still practiced today just as it has been for thousands of years. until recently many of the inland tribes had little contact with the outside world. as a result, they have preserved many aspects of their traditional way of life, including tattooing. borneo designs have gone all around the world to form the basis of what the western people call ‘tribal’. --- india / thailand hanuman in india was a popular symbol of strength on arms and legs. the mythical monk is still today one of the most popular creations in thailand and myanmar. they are put on the human body by monks who incorporate magical powers to the design while tattooing. women are excluded because monks are not allowed to be touched by them and because thais believe women do not need the extra boost as they are already strong enough on their own. --- africa in africa, where people have dark skin, it is difficult to make coloured tattoos as we know them. but they want to be tattooed anyway, so they have developed another technique - they make scarifications (this is not really tattooing, but it is related to tattooing). made by lifting the skin a little, and making a cut with a knife or some other sharp thing special sands or ashes were rubbed in to make raised scars in patterns on the body, it can be felt like braille lettering... these patterns often follow local traditions. --- ancient greece and rome the greeks learnt tattooing from the persians. their woman were fascinated by the idea of tattoos as exotic beauty marks. the romans adopted tattooing from the greeks. roman writers such as virgil, seneca, and galenus reported that many slaves and criminals were tattooed. a legal inscription from ephesus indicates that during the early roman empire all slaves exported to asia were tattooed with the words ‘tax paid’. greeks and romans also used tattooing as a punishment. early in the fourth century, when constantine became roman emperor and rescinded the prohibition on christianity, he also banned tattooing on face, which was common for convicts, soldiers, and gladiators. constantine believed that the human face was a representation of the image of god and should not be disfigured or defiled. --- the celts were a tribal people who moved across western europe in times around 1200 and 700 B.C. they reached the british Isles around 400 B.C. and most of what has survived from their culture is in the areas now known as ireland, wales and scotland. celtic culture was full of body art. permanent body painting was done with woad, which left a blue design on the skin. spirals are very common, and they can be single, doubled or tripled. knotwork is probably the most recognized form of celtic art, with lines forming complex braids which then weave across themselves. these symbolise the connection of all life. step or key patterns, like those found in early labyrinth designs, are seen both in simple borders and full complex mazes. much in the way that labyrinths are walked, these designs are symbolic of the various paths that life’s journey can take. --- central and south america in peru, tattooed inca mummies dating to the 11th century have been found. 16th century spanish accounts of mayan tattooing in mexico and central americareveal tattoos to be a sign of courage. when cortez and his conquistadors arrived on the coast of mexico in 1519 they were horrified to discover that the natives not only worshipped devils in the form of statues and idols, but had somehow managed to imprint indelible images of these idols on their skin. the spaniards, who had never heard of tattooing, recognized it at once as the work of satan. the sixteenth century spanish historians who chronicled the adventures of cortez and his conquistadors reported that tattooing was widely practiced by the natives of central america. --- north america early jesuit accounts testify to the widespread practice of tattooing among native americans. among the chickasaw, outstanding warriors were recognised by their tattoos. among the ontario iroquoians, elaborate tattoos reflected high status. in north-west america, inuit women's chins were tattooed to indicate marital status and group identity. the first permanent tattoo shop in new york city was settled up in 1846 and began a tradition by tattooing military servicemen from both sides of the civil war. samuel o'reilly invented the electric tattooing machine in 1891. --- middle-east during the time of the old testament, much of the pagan world was practicing the art of tattooing as a means of deity worship. a passage in leviticus reads: ‘ye shall not make any cuttings on your flesh for the dead nor print any marks upon you’. (19:28) this has been cited as biblical authority to support the church's position. biblical scholar m.w. thomson suggests, however, that moses favored tattoos. moses introduced tattoos as a way to commemorate the deliverance of the jews from slavery in egypt. --- vikings it is very likely that the vikings were tattooed. at around year 1100 the arab ibn fadlan described a meeting with some vikings. he thought them very rude, dirty - and covered with pictures. --- england explorers returned home with tattooed polynesians to exhibit at fairs, in lecture halls and in dime museums, to demonstrate the height of european civilization compared to the ‘primitive natives’. after captain cook returned from his voyage to polynesia tattooing became a tradition in the british navy. by the middle of the 18th century most british ports had at least one professional tattoo artist in residence. in 1862, the prince of wales, later to become king edward VII, received his first tattoo - a jerusalem cross - on his arm. he started a tattoo fad among the aristocracy when he was tattooed before ascending to the throne. in 1882, his sons, the duke of clarence and the duke of york were tattooed by the japanese master tattooist, hori chiyo. --- france in the 18th century, many french sailors returning from voyages in the south pacific had been tattooed. in 1861, french naval surgeon, maurice berchon, published a study on the medical complications of tattooing. after this, the navy and army banned tattooing within their ranks. stereotypical and sensationalised association of tattoo design ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- sailor sailors on their ships returned home with their own tattoos... usually of a very basic style that only uses a minimum amount of details making the tattoos look quite two dimensional and flat. this often gives a cartoonish feeling and typical motifs would be flowers, hearts, mermaids, ships, anchors, snakes, birds, and names. criminality for a long time, tattooing was the preserve of sailors and... criminals! in prison, the tattoo - professionally done and homemade- indelibly imprint on their bodies what these men desire in their souls: autonomy and identity. the ultimate symbol for gang members are their gang tattoos, getting a permanent mark is a sign of showing total commitment to the gang. these tattoos can reveal lots of things, like, who you are/what gang you're in/ what your beliefs are (racist etc..), what you have done, where you have been, how many years you have been in jail (also referred to as ‘dead time’) and even things like how many you have killed. known symbols include teardrops under the eye as well as spider webs on the elbows to symbolize people killed. circus the popularity of tattooing during the latter part of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century owed much to the circus. when circuses prospered, tattooing prospered. for over 70 years every major circus employed several completely tattooed people. some were exhibited in sideshows; others performed traditional circus acts such as juggling and sword swallowing. --------------- tattoo flash as with other artistic mediums and cultural developments, vocabulary continually evolves, reflecting the depth and potential of body marking and of the contemporary imagination. in recent years tattooing has emerged to the forefront of popular consciousness. today a tattoo ‘flash’, is a folder of tattoo-artwork by tattoo artists. styles range from the traditional and vernacular to the sacred and innovative.

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The History of Man - The Evolution of Man

The roots of evolutionist thought go back as far as antiquity as a dogmatic belief attempting to deny the fact of creation. Most of the pagan philosophers in ancient Greece defended the idea of evolution. When we take a look at the history of philosophy we see that the idea of evolution constitutes the backbone of many pagan philosophies.
However, it is not this ancient pagan philosophy, but faith in God which has played a stimulating role in the birth and development of modern science. Most of the people who pioneered modern science believed in the existence of God; and while studying science, they sought to discover the universe God has created and to perceive His laws and the details in His creation. Astronomers such as Copernicus, Keppler, and Galileo; the father of paleontology, Cuvier; the pioneer of botany and zoology, Linnaeus; and Isaac Newton, who is referred to as the "greatest scientist who ever lived", all studied science believing not only in the existence of God but also that the whole universe came into being as a result of His creation. 6 Albert Einstein, considered to be the greatest genius of our age, was another devout scientist who believed in God and stated thus; "I cannot conceive of a genuine scientist without that profound faith. The situation may be expressed by an image: science without religion is lame."7
One of the founders of modern physics, German physician Max Planck said: "Anybody who has been seriously engaged in scientific work of any kind realizes that over the entrance to the gates of the temple of science are written the words: Ye must have faith. It is a quality which the scientist cannot dispense with."8
The theory of evolution is the outcome of the materialist philosophy that surfaced with the reawakening of ancient materialistic philosophies and became widespread in the 19th century. As we have indicated before, materialism seeks to explain nature through purely material factors. Since it denies creation right from the start, it asserts that every thing, whether animate or inanimate, has appeared without an act of creation but rather as a result of a coincidence that then acquired a condition of order. The human mind however is so structured as to comprehend the existence of an organising will wherever it sees order. Materialistic philosophy, which is contrary to this very basic characteristic of the human mind, produced "the theory of evolution" in the middle of the 19th century.

DARWIN’S IMAGINATION 

The person who put forward the theory of evolution the way it is defended today, was an amateur English naturalist, Charles Robert Darwin.
Darwin had never undergone a formal education in biology. He took only an amateur interest in the subject of nature and living things. His interest spurred him to voluntarily join an expedition on board a ship named H.M.S. Beagle that set out from England in 1832 and travelled around different regions of the world for five years. Young Darwin was greatly impressed by various living species, especially by certain finches that he saw in the Galapagos Islands. He thought that the variations in their beaks were caused by their adaptation to their habitat. With this idea in mind, he supposed that the origin of life and species lay in the concept of "adaptation to the environment". Darwin opposed the fact that God created different living species separately, suggesting that they rather came from a common ancestor and became differentiated from each other as a result of natural conditions.

Charles Darwin

Darwin's hypothesis was not based on any scientific discovery or experiment; in time however he turned it into a pretentious theory with the support and encouragement he received from the famous materialist biologists of his time. The idea was that the individuals that adapted to the habitat in the best way transferred their qualities to subsequent generations; these advantageous qualities accumulated in time and transformed the individual into a species totally different from its ancestors. (The origin of these "advantageous qualities" was unknown at the time.) According to Darwin, man was the most developed outcome of this imaginary mechanism.
Darwin called this process "evolution by natural selection". He thought he had found the "origin of species": the origin of one species was another species. He published these views in his book titled The Origin of Species, By Means of Natural Selection in 1859.
Darwin was well aware that his theory faced lots of problems. He confessed these in his book in the chapter "Difficulties of the Theory". These difficulties primarily consisted of the fossil record, complex organs of living things that could not possibly be explained by coincidence (e.g. the eye), and the instincts of living beings. Darwin hoped that these difficulties would be overcome by new discoveries; yet this did not stop him from coming up with a number of very inadequate explanations for some. The American physicist Lipson made the following comment on the "difficulties" of Darwin:

On reading The Origin of Species, I found that Darwin was much less sure himself than he is often represented to be; the chapter entitled "Difficulties of the Theory" for example, shows considerable self-doubt. As a physicist, I was particularly intrigued by his comments on how the eye would have arisen. 9

While developing his theory, Darwin was impressed by many evolutionist biologists preceding him, and primarily by the French biologist, Lamarck. 10 According to Lamarck, living creatures passed the traits they acquired during their lifetime from one generation to the next and thus evolved. For instance, giraffes evolved from antelope-like animals by extending their necks further and further from generation to generation as they tried to reach higher and higher branches for food. Darwin thus employed the thesis of "passing the acquired traits" proposed by Lamarck as the factor that made living beings evolve.
But both Darwin and Lamarck were mistaken because in their day, life could only be studied with very primitive technology and at a very inadequate level. Scientific fields such as genetics and biochemistry did not exist even in name. Their theories therefore had to depend entirely on their powers of imagination.

Darwin's Racism One of the most important yet least-known aspects of Darwin is his racism: Darwin regarded white Europeans as more "advanced" than other human races. While Darwin presumed that man evolved from ape-like creatures, he surmised that some races developed more than others and that the latter still bore simian features. In his book, The Descent of Man, which he published after The Origin of Species, he boldly commented on "the greater differences between men of distinct races".1 In his book, Darwin held blacks and Australian Aborigines to be equal to gorillas and then inferred that these would be "done away with" by the "civilised races" in time. He said: At some future period, not very distant as measured by centuries, the civilized races of man will almost certainly exterminate and replace the savage races throughout the world. At the same time the anthropomorphous apes... will no doubt be exterminated. The break between man and his nearest allies will then be wider, for it will intervene in a more civilised state, as we may hope, even than the Caucasian, and some ape as low as baboon, instead of as now between the negro or Australian and the gorilla.2   Darwin's nonsensical ideas were not only theorised, but also brought into a position where they provided the most important "scientific ground" for racism. Supposing that living beings evolved in the struggle for life, Darwinism was even adapted to the social sciences, and turned into a conception that came to be called "Social Darwinism. Supposing that living beings evolved in the struggle for life, Darwinism was even adapted to the social sciences, and turned into a conception that came to be called "Social Darwinism". Social Darwinism contends that existing human races are located at different rungs of the "evolutionary ladder", that the European races were the most "advanced" of all, and that many other races still bear "simian" features. 1 Benjamin Farrington, What Darwin Really Said. London: Sphere Books, 1971, pp. 54-56 2 Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, 2nd ed., New York: A.L. Burt Co., 1874, p. 178

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Logical history of humankind?

Logical history of humankind?

Has history been tampered with? The documented history of human civilization is supposed to reach several millennia back into the past. And yet if we consider the rate at which civilization is supposed to have progressed, we encounter periods of obscurity and informational vacuum following the alleged decline of every ancient empire, and then everything starts anew.CLICK ON AMAZON LINK! Inventions are presumed lost for centuries, then re-invented by people whose names bear suspicious semblance to those of the ancient inventors. Just how true all of this is? Could history as we know it really be a collation of several chronicles relating to one and the same period of time? Apparently, this is what the Russian mathematician Anatoly Fomenko claims. He is the author of the first volume in a series of seven that came out in English recently, and generated incredible controversy amongst professional historians worldwide. Many are trying to put the author into one league with numerous paranoid conspiracy theorists and mad inventors - however, all of his work conforms to the highest academic standards and is backed by solid scientific facts; furthermore, some of the most lucid minds of our time support many of the theories put forward by the authors. Garry Kasparov, the world chess champion, says the following in his preface to volume 1: "Let us consider the factor of a mass character that I shall be referring to as psychophysical. Documented history tells us of the insatiable ...

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The History of Computer

Prehistoric man did not have the Internet, but it appears that he needed a way to count and make calculations. The limitations of the human body’s ten fingers and ten toes apparently caused early man to construct a tool to help with those calculations. Scientists now know that humankind invented an early form of computers. Their clue was a bone carved with prime numbers found in 8,500 BC.

The abacus was the next leap forward in computing between 1000 BC and 500 BD. This apparatus used a series of moveable beads or rocks. The positions changed to enter a number and again to perform mathematical operations. Leonardo DaVinci was credited with the invention of the world’s first mechanical calculator in 1500. In 1642, Blaise Pascal’s adding machine upstaged DaVinci’s marvel and moved computing forward again.

In 19^th century England, Charles Babbage, a mathematician, proposed the construction of a machine that he called the Babbage Difference Engine. It would not only calculate numbers, it would also be capable of printing mathematical tables. The Computer History Museum in Mountain View, CA (near San Diego) built a working replica from the original drawings. Visitors can see in the device in operation there. Unable to construct the actual device, he earned quite a few detractors among England’s literate citizens. However, Babbage made a place for himself in history as the father of computing. Not satisfied with the machines limitations, he drafted plans for the Babbage Analytical Engine. He intended for this computing device to use punch cards as the control mechanism for calculations. This feature would make it possible for his computer to use previously performed calculations in new ones.

Babbage’s idea caught the attention of Ada Byron Lovelace who had an undying passion for math. She also saw possibilities that the Analytical Machine could produce graphics and music. She helped Babbage move his project from idea to reality by documenting how the device would calculate Bernoulli numbers. She later received recognition for writing the world’s first computer program. The United States Department of Defense named a computer language in her honor in 1979.

The computers that followed built on each previous success and improved it. In 1943, the first programmable computer Turing COLOSSUS appeared. It was pressed into service to decipher World War II coded messages from Germany. ENIAC, the brain, was the first electronic computer, in 1946. In 1951, the U.S. Census Bureau became the first government agency to buy a computer, UNIVAC .

The Apple expanded the use of computers to consumers in 1977. The IBM PC for consumers followed closely in 1981, although IBM mainframes were in use by government and corporations.

• 8,500 BC Bone carved with prime numbers found
• 1000 BC to 500 BC Abacus invented
• 1642 Blaise Pascal’s invented adding machine, France
• 1822 Charles Babbage drafted Babbage Difference Engine, England
• 1835 Babbage Analytical Engine proposed, England
• 1843 Ada Byron Lovelace computer program to calculate Bernoulli numbers, England
• 1943 Turing COLOSSUS the first programmable computer, England
• 1946 ENIAC first electronic computer, U.S.A.
• 1951 UNIVAC first computer used by U.S. government, U.S.A.
• 1969 ARPANET Department of Defense lays groundwork for Internet, U.S.A.
• 1968 Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce found in Intel, U.S.A.
• 1977 Apple computers for consumers sold, U.S.A.
• 1981 IBM personal computers sold, U.S.A.
• 1991 World Wide Web consumer Internet access, CERN, Tim Berners-Lee Switzerland/France
• 2000 Y 2K Bug programming errors discovered
• Current Technologies include word processing, games, email, maps, and streaming

The development of network technology and increases in processing capabilities for microcomputers made consumer Internet use possible by 1991. The computer evolution since then continues. New uses emerge every year.

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